John Fitzgerald of Swinburne University of Technology has written an article in the Journal of Political Risk that argues that Western universities should boycott, that is not participate in or refer to, the Shanghai rankings in order to show opposition to the current authoritarian trend in Chinese higher education.
There seems a bit of selective indignation at work here. China is hardly the only country in the world with authoritarian governments, ideologically docile universities, or crackdowns on dissidents. Nearly everywhere in Africa, most of the Middle East, Russia, much of Eastern Europe, and perhaps India would seem as guilty as China, if not more so.
American and other Western universities themselves are in danger of becoming one party institutions based on an obsessive hatred of Trump or Brexit, a pervasive cult of "diversity", political tests for admission, appointment and promotion, and periodic media or physical attacks on dissenters or those who associate with dissenters.
Perhaps academics should boycott the THE or other rankings to protest the treatment by Cambridge University of Noah Carl or Jordan Peterson?
One way of resisting the wave of repression, according to Professor Fitzgerald, is to "no longer reference the ARWU rankings or participate in the Shanghai Jiaotong rankings process which risks spreading the Chinese Communist Party's university model globally. Universities that continue to participate or reference the Shanghai rankings should be tasked by their faculty and alumni to explain why they are failing to uphold the principles of free inquiry and institutional autonomy as fiercely as Xi Jinping is undermining them."
It is hard to see what Fitzgerald means by not participating in the Shanghai rankings. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) uses publicly available data from western sources, the Web of Science, Nature, Science, the Clarivate Analytics list of Highly Cited Researchers, and Nobel and Fields awards. Universities cannot avoid participating in them. They can denounce and condemn the rankings until their faces turn bright purple but they cannot opt out. They are ranked by ARWU whether they like it or not.
As for referencing, presumably citing the Shanghai rankings or celebrating university achievements there, Fitzgerald's proposals would seem self defeating. The rankings actually understate the achievements of leading Chinese universities. In the latest ARWU Tsinghua University and Peking University are ranked 43rd and 53rd. The QS World University Rankings puts them 16th and 22nd and the THE world rankings 23rd and 24th.
If anyone wanted to protest the rise of Chinese universities they should turn to the QS and THE rankings where they do well because of reputation, income (THE), and publications in high status journals. It is also possible to opt out of the THE rankings simply by not submitting data.
If oppressive policies did affect the quality of research produced by Chinese universities this would be more likely to show up in the Shanghai rankings through the departure of highly cited researchers or declining submissions to Nature or Science than in the THE or QS rankings where a decline would be obscured if reputation scores continued to hold steady.
Fitzgerald's proposals are pointless and self defeating and ascribe a greater influence to rankings than they actually have.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Thursday, January 16, 2020
The decline of standardised testing
Over the last few years there has been a trend in American higher education to reduce the significance of standardised tests -- SAT, ACT, GRE, GMAT, LSAT -- in university admissions. A large number of institutions have gone test optional, meaning that it is up to students whether or not they submit their scores. Those who do not submit will not be rejected but will be assessed by other criteria such as high school grades and ranks, recommendations, social awareness, grit, coping with adversity, leadership, sports, membership of protected groups, and so on.
Most test optional schools are small liberal arts colleges but recently they were joined by the University of Chicago, an elite university by any standards.
Going test optional has a number of advantages. Students with low test scores will be more likely to apply and that will lower the percentage of applicants admitted which will make the universities look more selective. It could also help with the rankings which may at first sight seem a bit of a paradox. US News has declared that for the America's Best Colleges rankings up to 25% of applicants can withhold their SAT or ACT scores without the college being penalised.
It seems that if universities can arrange to admit 75% of applicants wholly or partly on the basis of their test scores and allow another quarter to be admitted because of a "holistic" assessment then they may suffer a measurable fall in the average academic ability of their students but not enough to get in trouble with the rankers or to undermine their reputation for academic excellence.
It seems likely that US News will continue to adjust its rankings to accommodate the test optional trend, Recently, for example, the ranking of online graduate education courses lowered the threshold for full credit for quantitative and verbal GRE scores from 75% to 25% of admitted students. The justification for this is that "although many ranked programs with selective admissions made use of GRE scores in limited circumstances very often submitting these scores was optional or waived for applicants."
This will lead to the problem of a substantial number of students being admitted with significantly lower test scores or without taking the tests and so the gap between the most and least able students is likely to widen. Many of those admitted without submitting scores will suffer a serious blow to their self respect as they go from being the academic super stars of their high school or undergraduate program to ranking at the bottom of any assessed test or assignment.
There will accordingly be pressure on colleges and graduates schools to relax grading standards, give credit for group work, allow students to repeat courses, mandate contextualised assessment policies, hold instructors responsible for the performance of students. Faculty who talk about the decline in standards or disparities in achievement will be disciplined and ostracised.
The significant thing about standardised tests is that they correlate quite highly with general intelligence or cognitive ability and also with each other. They played a significant role in the growth of American higher education and research in the twentieth century and the transformation of the Ivy league from a place for producing literate and well behaved young gentlemen into intellectual powerhouses that contributed to the economic and scientific dominance of the US in the second half of the twentieth century.
They are also a good predictor of academic performance although perhaps not quite as good by themselves as high school grades which are influenced by conscientiousness and social conformity.
It now seems likely that there will be increasing pressure to get rid of standardised tests altogether. In California there is a court case in process to make it illegal to used tests for university admissions and Carol Christ, Chancellor of the University of California (UC) Berkeley, has declared in favour of abolition.
Getting rid of tests will mean getting rid of an objective measure of students' intelligence and academic ability. Grades are, as noted above, a slightly better predictor overall of academic performance but there are contexts where tests can add vital information to the admission process. Grade inflation throughout US high schools is creating a large number of students with perfect or near perfect grades but with huge differences in cognitive skills. Without tests there will be no way of distinguishing the truly capable from the diligently mediocre or the aggressively conformist.
If UC does stop using the SAT or ACT for admissions it is unlikely that it will institute a policy of open admissions, at least not yet. It is more probable they it will shift the criteria for selection to high school grades, teachers' recommendations, group membership, and unsupervised personal essays. The consequences of selection though inflatable high school grades and other subjective measures will almost certainly be a significant decline in the average cognitive skills of students at currently selective universities.
American universities will probably become more representative of the ethnic, gender and racial structure of America or the world, more conscientious, more extroverted, more socially aware. Perhaps this will be compensation for the decline in cognitive ability.
It is unlikely that the levelling process will end there. In the years to come there will very probably be demands that universities stop using high school grades or admission essays or anything else that shows a social or racial gap. Studies will be cited showing that wealthy white parents help their children with homework or drive them to volunteering activities or pay for sports equipment or get professional advice about their diversity essays.
Ultimately there will be a situation where American universities see a noticeable decline in the academic and cognitive ability of students and graduates in comparison with China and the Chinese diaspora, Japan, Korea, Russia and Eastern Europe and maybe India. Almost certainly this will be attributed by educational experts to the stinginess of federal and state authorities.
Perhaps there will come another Sputnik moment when America realises that it has fallen behind its competitors. If so it will probably be too late.
Most test optional schools are small liberal arts colleges but recently they were joined by the University of Chicago, an elite university by any standards.
Going test optional has a number of advantages. Students with low test scores will be more likely to apply and that will lower the percentage of applicants admitted which will make the universities look more selective. It could also help with the rankings which may at first sight seem a bit of a paradox. US News has declared that for the America's Best Colleges rankings up to 25% of applicants can withhold their SAT or ACT scores without the college being penalised.
It seems that if universities can arrange to admit 75% of applicants wholly or partly on the basis of their test scores and allow another quarter to be admitted because of a "holistic" assessment then they may suffer a measurable fall in the average academic ability of their students but not enough to get in trouble with the rankers or to undermine their reputation for academic excellence.
It seems likely that US News will continue to adjust its rankings to accommodate the test optional trend, Recently, for example, the ranking of online graduate education courses lowered the threshold for full credit for quantitative and verbal GRE scores from 75% to 25% of admitted students. The justification for this is that "although many ranked programs with selective admissions made use of GRE scores in limited circumstances very often submitting these scores was optional or waived for applicants."
This will lead to the problem of a substantial number of students being admitted with significantly lower test scores or without taking the tests and so the gap between the most and least able students is likely to widen. Many of those admitted without submitting scores will suffer a serious blow to their self respect as they go from being the academic super stars of their high school or undergraduate program to ranking at the bottom of any assessed test or assignment.
There will accordingly be pressure on colleges and graduates schools to relax grading standards, give credit for group work, allow students to repeat courses, mandate contextualised assessment policies, hold instructors responsible for the performance of students. Faculty who talk about the decline in standards or disparities in achievement will be disciplined and ostracised.
The significant thing about standardised tests is that they correlate quite highly with general intelligence or cognitive ability and also with each other. They played a significant role in the growth of American higher education and research in the twentieth century and the transformation of the Ivy league from a place for producing literate and well behaved young gentlemen into intellectual powerhouses that contributed to the economic and scientific dominance of the US in the second half of the twentieth century.
They are also a good predictor of academic performance although perhaps not quite as good by themselves as high school grades which are influenced by conscientiousness and social conformity.
It now seems likely that there will be increasing pressure to get rid of standardised tests altogether. In California there is a court case in process to make it illegal to used tests for university admissions and Carol Christ, Chancellor of the University of California (UC) Berkeley, has declared in favour of abolition.
Getting rid of tests will mean getting rid of an objective measure of students' intelligence and academic ability. Grades are, as noted above, a slightly better predictor overall of academic performance but there are contexts where tests can add vital information to the admission process. Grade inflation throughout US high schools is creating a large number of students with perfect or near perfect grades but with huge differences in cognitive skills. Without tests there will be no way of distinguishing the truly capable from the diligently mediocre or the aggressively conformist.
If UC does stop using the SAT or ACT for admissions it is unlikely that it will institute a policy of open admissions, at least not yet. It is more probable they it will shift the criteria for selection to high school grades, teachers' recommendations, group membership, and unsupervised personal essays. The consequences of selection though inflatable high school grades and other subjective measures will almost certainly be a significant decline in the average cognitive skills of students at currently selective universities.
American universities will probably become more representative of the ethnic, gender and racial structure of America or the world, more conscientious, more extroverted, more socially aware. Perhaps this will be compensation for the decline in cognitive ability.
It is unlikely that the levelling process will end there. In the years to come there will very probably be demands that universities stop using high school grades or admission essays or anything else that shows a social or racial gap. Studies will be cited showing that wealthy white parents help their children with homework or drive them to volunteering activities or pay for sports equipment or get professional advice about their diversity essays.
Ultimately there will be a situation where American universities see a noticeable decline in the academic and cognitive ability of students and graduates in comparison with China and the Chinese diaspora, Japan, Korea, Russia and Eastern Europe and maybe India. Almost certainly this will be attributed by educational experts to the stinginess of federal and state authorities.
Perhaps there will come another Sputnik moment when America realises that it has fallen behind its competitors. If so it will probably be too late.
Sunday, December 15, 2019
Sometimes Nice Guys Finish First for Something: the Case of Dartmouth College
There is a crisis approaching for the universities of the global North. A fundamental problem is that declining or stagnant birth rates are reducing the number of potential students, especially in North America, and that will eventually undermine their economic viability. See this article in Inside Higher Ed for the situation in the US.
The options seem to be limited. Universities could downsize and reduce the numbers of staff and students and, at elite US institutions, spending on country club facilities and an ever expanding army of administrators. They could revise their missions by offering fewer graduate courses, especially in the humanities and social sciences, and more vocational programs.
There seems, however, to be little appetite at the moment for such measures. Many universities are trying to maintain income and size by recruiting from abroad. For a while it appeared that western universities would be saved by thousands of international, mainly Chinese, students. But now it looks like fewer Chinese will be coming and there seems to be no substitute in sight. European universities got excited about Middle Eastern refugees filling the empty seats in lecture halls but then it turned out that most lacked the linguistic and cognitive skills for higher education.
The problem is exacerbated by the general decline or flatlining of cognitive skills of potential students, measured by PISA scores or standardized tests. There have been various hypotheses about the cause: smart phones, too much screen time, immigration, dysgenic fertility, inadequate teaching methods, lack of funding, institutional racism and sexism, toxic Trumpism. But, whatever the cause there seems little hope of a recovery any time soon.
Business schools appear to be part of this trend. MBA students tend to be highly mobile and they are not limited to choosing, as many US undergraduates are, between a community college, the local state university and a struggling private college. Faced with competition from European and Asian schools and online courses, soaring costs and declining applications, many US business schools are at best treading water and at worst in serious danger of drowning.
Dartmouth College, a venerable Ivy League school, is no exception. Back in 2014 it reported the biggest drop in applications in 21 years. Although the college continues to hold its place in the US News Best Colleges rankings it has fallen in the Shanghai rankings, suggesting that it is failing to attract leading researchers as well as talented students.
Dartmouth's Tuck School of Business has suffered as much or more than the rest of the institution. In 2011 it was first in the Economist's Full Time MBA ranking and second in 2012, starting a steady decline until 2019 when it was twelfth.
In 2018 Tuck tried to reverse the steady decline by adopting a new approach to admissions. It was not enough for Tuck students to be smart, accomplished and aware. They have to be nice.
Back in my days in grammar school my English teacher would be outraged by the use of that word. But standards have changed.
How to measure niceness? By an essay and a referee's report. One does not have to be excessively cynical to see that there is obvious room for gaming and bias here. Their is a large amount of writing and talking about coaching for standardized tests, none about whether essays like these have the any real authenticity or validity.
But perhaps I am being too cynical. Maybe Dartmouth's business school has done something right. The latest THE business and economics subject rankings puts Dartmouth 44th in the world for business and economics, which is very creditable, ahead of Boston University, Zhejiang, Edinburgh and Johns Hopkins..
With THE whenever there is a surprisingly high overall score it is a good idea to check the citations indicator which is supposedly a measure of research impact or influence. Sure enough, Dartmouth is second in the world for citations in business and economics just behind Central South University in China and just ahead of Peter the Great St Petersburg polytechnic University.
Could it be that all that niceness is somehow radiating out from the Tuck and causing researchers around the world to cite Dartmouth articles?
The options seem to be limited. Universities could downsize and reduce the numbers of staff and students and, at elite US institutions, spending on country club facilities and an ever expanding army of administrators. They could revise their missions by offering fewer graduate courses, especially in the humanities and social sciences, and more vocational programs.
There seems, however, to be little appetite at the moment for such measures. Many universities are trying to maintain income and size by recruiting from abroad. For a while it appeared that western universities would be saved by thousands of international, mainly Chinese, students. But now it looks like fewer Chinese will be coming and there seems to be no substitute in sight. European universities got excited about Middle Eastern refugees filling the empty seats in lecture halls but then it turned out that most lacked the linguistic and cognitive skills for higher education.
The problem is exacerbated by the general decline or flatlining of cognitive skills of potential students, measured by PISA scores or standardized tests. There have been various hypotheses about the cause: smart phones, too much screen time, immigration, dysgenic fertility, inadequate teaching methods, lack of funding, institutional racism and sexism, toxic Trumpism. But, whatever the cause there seems little hope of a recovery any time soon.
Business schools appear to be part of this trend. MBA students tend to be highly mobile and they are not limited to choosing, as many US undergraduates are, between a community college, the local state university and a struggling private college. Faced with competition from European and Asian schools and online courses, soaring costs and declining applications, many US business schools are at best treading water and at worst in serious danger of drowning.
Dartmouth College, a venerable Ivy League school, is no exception. Back in 2014 it reported the biggest drop in applications in 21 years. Although the college continues to hold its place in the US News Best Colleges rankings it has fallen in the Shanghai rankings, suggesting that it is failing to attract leading researchers as well as talented students.
Dartmouth's Tuck School of Business has suffered as much or more than the rest of the institution. In 2011 it was first in the Economist's Full Time MBA ranking and second in 2012, starting a steady decline until 2019 when it was twelfth.
In 2018 Tuck tried to reverse the steady decline by adopting a new approach to admissions. It was not enough for Tuck students to be smart, accomplished and aware. They have to be nice.
Back in my days in grammar school my English teacher would be outraged by the use of that word. But standards have changed.
How to measure niceness? By an essay and a referee's report. One does not have to be excessively cynical to see that there is obvious room for gaming and bias here. Their is a large amount of writing and talking about coaching for standardized tests, none about whether essays like these have the any real authenticity or validity.
But perhaps I am being too cynical. Maybe Dartmouth's business school has done something right. The latest THE business and economics subject rankings puts Dartmouth 44th in the world for business and economics, which is very creditable, ahead of Boston University, Zhejiang, Edinburgh and Johns Hopkins..
With THE whenever there is a surprisingly high overall score it is a good idea to check the citations indicator which is supposedly a measure of research impact or influence. Sure enough, Dartmouth is second in the world for citations in business and economics just behind Central South University in China and just ahead of Peter the Great St Petersburg polytechnic University.
Could it be that all that niceness is somehow radiating out from the Tuck and causing researchers around the world to cite Dartmouth articles?
Sunday, November 10, 2019
When will Tsinghua Overtake Harvard?
One of the most interesting trends in higher education over the last few years is the rise of China and the relative decline of the USA.
Winston Churchill said the empires of the future will be empires of the mind. If that is so then this century will very likely be the age of Chinese hegemony. Chinese science is advancing faster than that of the USA on all or nearly all fronts. Unless we count things like critical race theory or queer studies.
This is something that should show up in the global rankings if we track them over at least a few years. So, here is a comparison of the top two universities in the two countries according to indicators of research output and research quality over a decade.
Unfortunately, most international rankings are not very helpful in this respect. Few of the current ones provide data for a decade or more. QS and THE have seen frequent changes in methodology and THE's citation indicator although charmingly amusing is not useful unless you think that Aswan University, Anglia Ruskin University and the University of Peradeniya are world beaters for research impact. Two helpful rankings here are Shanghai Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), and Leiden Ranking.
Let's compare the comparative performance of Tsinghua University and Harvard in the Shanghai Ranking's indicator of research output, papers over a one year period, excluding arts and humanities. The published scores are derived from the square roots of the raw data with the top scorer getting a score of 100.
In 2009 Harvard's score was 100 while that for Tsinghua was 55.8. In 2019 it was 100 for Harvard and 79.5 for Tsinghua. So the gap is closing 2.37 points every year. At that rate it would take about nine years for Tsinghua to catch up so look out for 2028.
Of course, this is quantity not quality so take a look at another indicator, Highly Cited Researchers. This is a moderately gamable metric and I suspect that Shanghai might have to abandon it one day but it captures the willingness and ability of universities to sponsor research of a high quality. In 2009 Tsinghua's score was zero compared to Harvard's 100. In 2019 it is 37.4. If everything continues at the same rate Tsinghua will overtake Harvard in another 17 years.
Looking at the default indicator in Leiden Ranking, total publications, in 2007-10 Tsinghua was 35% of Harvard and in 2014-17 56%. Working from that Tsinghua would achieve parity in 2029-33, in the rankings published in 2035.
Looking at a measure of research quality, publications in the top 10% of journals, Tsinghua was 15% of Harvard in 2007-10 and 34% in 2014-17. From that, Tsinghua should reach parity in 2038-42. in the rankings published in 2044, assuming Leiden is still following its current methodology.
So it looks like Tsinghua will reach parity in research output in a decade or a decade or a decade and a half and high quality research in a decade and a half or two decades and a half.
Winston Churchill said the empires of the future will be empires of the mind. If that is so then this century will very likely be the age of Chinese hegemony. Chinese science is advancing faster than that of the USA on all or nearly all fronts. Unless we count things like critical race theory or queer studies.
This is something that should show up in the global rankings if we track them over at least a few years. So, here is a comparison of the top two universities in the two countries according to indicators of research output and research quality over a decade.
Unfortunately, most international rankings are not very helpful in this respect. Few of the current ones provide data for a decade or more. QS and THE have seen frequent changes in methodology and THE's citation indicator although charmingly amusing is not useful unless you think that Aswan University, Anglia Ruskin University and the University of Peradeniya are world beaters for research impact. Two helpful rankings here are Shanghai Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), and Leiden Ranking.
Let's compare the comparative performance of Tsinghua University and Harvard in the Shanghai Ranking's indicator of research output, papers over a one year period, excluding arts and humanities. The published scores are derived from the square roots of the raw data with the top scorer getting a score of 100.
In 2009 Harvard's score was 100 while that for Tsinghua was 55.8. In 2019 it was 100 for Harvard and 79.5 for Tsinghua. So the gap is closing 2.37 points every year. At that rate it would take about nine years for Tsinghua to catch up so look out for 2028.
Of course, this is quantity not quality so take a look at another indicator, Highly Cited Researchers. This is a moderately gamable metric and I suspect that Shanghai might have to abandon it one day but it captures the willingness and ability of universities to sponsor research of a high quality. In 2009 Tsinghua's score was zero compared to Harvard's 100. In 2019 it is 37.4. If everything continues at the same rate Tsinghua will overtake Harvard in another 17 years.
Looking at the default indicator in Leiden Ranking, total publications, in 2007-10 Tsinghua was 35% of Harvard and in 2014-17 56%. Working from that Tsinghua would achieve parity in 2029-33, in the rankings published in 2035.
Looking at a measure of research quality, publications in the top 10% of journals, Tsinghua was 15% of Harvard in 2007-10 and 34% in 2014-17. From that, Tsinghua should reach parity in 2038-42. in the rankings published in 2044, assuming Leiden is still following its current methodology.
So it looks like Tsinghua will reach parity in research output in a decade or a decade or a decade and a half and high quality research in a decade and a half or two decades and a half.
Friday, October 25, 2019
Using Webometrics to Rank University Systems
Recently there has been some interest in ranking higher education systems in addition to institutions or departments. See here and here. But both of these efforts, from Universitas 21 and QS, rank only 50 countries.
The Webometrics rankings attempt to cover every university in the world or anything that might conceivably claim to be a university, institute or college. The indicators comprise web activity and research output. So, there is data here to create a simple and comprehensive ranking of countries. Below is the list of countries and territories ranked according to the world rank of the highest ranked university. If the Webometrics methodology remains unchanged it will be updated twice a year.
The table is not very surprising overall but it is worth noting that the leading Asian countries are already in the top ten and that Brazil and Mexico are not too far behind. The performance of Arab countries is not too impressive even if they are rich in oil.
It's a safe bet that the highest ranked Chinese university will rise steadily over the next few years followed by South Korea and Singapore, but probably not Hong Kong and Australia.
The Webometrics rankings attempt to cover every university in the world or anything that might conceivably claim to be a university, institute or college. The indicators comprise web activity and research output. So, there is data here to create a simple and comprehensive ranking of countries. Below is the list of countries and territories ranked according to the world rank of the highest ranked university. If the Webometrics methodology remains unchanged it will be updated twice a year.
The table is not very surprising overall but it is worth noting that the leading Asian countries are already in the top ten and that Brazil and Mexico are not too far behind. The performance of Arab countries is not too impressive even if they are rich in oil.
It's a safe bet that the highest ranked Chinese university will rise steadily over the next few years followed by South Korea and Singapore, but probably not Hong Kong and Australia.
Rank
|
Country
|
Rank of highest ranked university
|
1
|
USA
|
1
|
2
|
UK
|
7
|
3
|
Canada
|
19
|
4
|
Switzerland
|
32
|
5
|
China
|
33
|
6
|
Hong Kong
|
45
|
7
|
Australia
|
46
|
8
|
Singapore
|
50
|
9
|
Netherlands
|
63
|
10
|
Japan
|
69
|
11
|
Brazil
|
74
|
12
|
Denmark
|
76
|
13
|
Belgium
|
78
|
14
|
Finland
|
87
|
15
|
Norway
|
93
|
16
|
Germany
|
97
|
17
|
Sweden
|
106
|
18
|
Taiwan
|
111
|
19
|
South Korea
|
116
|
20
|
Italy
|
120
|
21
|
Spain
|
133
|
22
|
Mexico
|
141
|
23
|
Austria
|
150
|
24
|
New Zealand
|
153
|
25
|
Israel
|
157
|
26
|
Czech Republic
|
204
|
27
|
Portugal
|
208
|
28
|
Greece
|
224
|
29
|
Russia
|
226
|
30
|
Argentina
|
228
|
31
|
Ireland
|
230
|
32
|
South Africa
|
274
|
33
|
France
|
292
|
34
|
Chile
|
323
|
35
|
Malaysia
|
352
|
36
|
Argentina
|
372
|
37
|
Poland
|
388
|
38
|
Saudi Arabia
|
415
|
39
|
Iran
|
417
|
40
|
Estonia
|
440
|
41
|
Serbia
|
464
|
42
|
India
|
471
|
43
|
Turkey
|
475
|
44
|
Thailand
|
513
|
45
|
Iceland
|
533
|
46
|
Hungary
|
563
|
47
|
Egypt
|
602
|
48
|
Colombia
|
614
|
49
|
Croatia
|
619
|
50
|
Luxembourg
|
631
|
51
|
Puerto Rico
|
649
|
52
|
Belarus
|
684
|
53
|
Cyprus
|
700
|
54
|
Macau
|
720
|
55
|
Slovakia
|
732
|
56
|
Lithuania
|
750
|
57
|
Indonesia
|
771
|
58
|
Costa Rica
|
844
|
59
|
Malta
|
866
|
60
|
Romania
|
881
|
61
|
Bulgaria
|
934
|
62
|
Jamaica
|
953
|
63
|
Qatar
|
958
|
64
|
Peru
|
971
|
65
|
Kenya
|
987
|
66
|
Vietnam
|
1013
|
67
|
Slovenia
|
1103
|
68
|
Latvia
|
1106
|
69
|
Uganda
|
1129
|
70
|
Jordan
|
1149
|
71
|
UAE
|
1158
|
72
|
Philippines
|
1199
|
73
|
Ghana
|
1209
|
74
|
Nigeria
|
1233
|
75
|
Pakistan
|
1269
|
76
|
Ethiopia
|
1314
|
77
|
Oman
|
1346
|
78
|
Georgia
|
1423
|
79
|
Morocco
|
1515
|
80
|
North Macedonia
|
1569
|
81
|
Venezuela
|
1593
|
82
|
Ecuador
|
1638
|
83
|
Palestine
|
1646
|
84
|
Bosnia
|
1669
|
85
|
Kazakhstan
|
1793
|
86
|
Trinidad
|
1794
|
87
|
Iraq
|
1804
|
88
|
Brunei
|
1829
|
89
|
Fiji
|
1831
|
90
|
Bangladesh
|
1895
|
91
|
Tanzania
|
1913
|
92
|
Ukraine
|
1977
|
93
|
Sri Lanka
|
1981
|
94
|
Zimbabwe
|
2014
|
95
|
Algeria
|
2061
|
96
|
Cuba
|
2134
|
97
|
Bahrain
|
2161
|
98
|
Kuwait
|
2200
|
99
|
Mozambique
|
2280
|
100
|
Paraguay
|
2297
|
101
|
Mauritius
|
2422
|
102
|
Guatemala
|
2458
|
103
|
Uruguay
|
2499
|
104
|
Botswana
|
2583
|
105
|
Grenada
|
2583
|
106
|
Armenia
|
2643
|
107
|
Liechtenstein
|
2761
|
108
|
Montenegro
|
2878
|
109
|
Guam
|
2900
|
110
|
Sudan
|
2936
|
111
|
Bolivia
|
2960
|
112
|
Mongolia
|
2962
|
113
|
Benin
|
2980
|
114
|
Malawi
|
3001
|
115
|
Zambia
|
3001
|
116
|
Senegal
|
3008
|
117
|
Moldova
|
3151
|
118
|
Tunisia
|
3198
|
119
|
Rwanda
|
3220
|
120
|
Nepal
|
3243
|
121
|
Namibia
|
3316
|
122
|
Panama
|
3391
|
123
|
Cameroon
|
3527
|
124
|
Barbados
|
3538
|
125
|
Azerbaijan
|
3573
|
126
|
US Virgin Islands
|
3579
|
127
|
Syria
|
3593
|
128
|
Burkina Faso
|
3634
|
129
|
Dominica
|
3679
|
130
|
Honduras
|
3892
|
131
|
Uzbekistan
|
4017
|
132
|
Libya
|
4040
|
133
|
Yemen
|
4126
|
134
|
Faroe Islands
|
4368
|
135
|
Madagascar
|
4372
|
136
|
Togo
|
4392
|
137
|
Eswatini
|
4428
|
138
|
Laos
|
4431
|
139
|
Nicaragua
|
4458
|
140
|
El Salvador
|
4542
|
141
|
Kyrgyzstan
|
4554
|
142
|
French Polynesia
|
4640
|
143
|
Albania
|
4735
|
144
|
Monaco
|
4842
|
145
|
Dominican Republic
|
4903
|
146
|
Cambodia
|
5060
|
147
|
San Marino
|
5107
|
148
|
Papua New Guinee
|
5205
|
149
|
Greenland
|
5378
|
150
|
Afghanistan
|
5676
|
151
|
Lesotho
|
5872
|
152
|
Antigua
|
6040
|
153
|
Guyana
|
6149
|
154
|
Ivory Coast
|
6306
|
155
|
Anguilla
|
6374
|
156
|
Suriname
|
6641
|
157
|
Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
7033
|
158
|
American Samoa
|
7213
|
159
|
Myanmar
|
7221
|
160
|
Belize
|
7497
|
161
|
Micronesia
|
7962
|
162
|
Haiti
|
8082
|
163
|
Angola
|
8091
|
164
|
Bhutan
|
8159
|
165
|
Niger
|
8384
|
166
|
Sierra Leone
|
8560
|
167
|
Somalia
|
10154
|
168
|
St Kitts & Nevis
|
10527
|
169
|
Cape Verde
|
10685
|
170
|
Andorra
|
10772
|
171
|
Gambia
|
11020
|
172
|
Seychelles
|
11235
|
173
|
South Sudan
|
12329
|
174
|
Cayman Islands
|
13011
|
175
|
Samoa
|
13132
|
176
|
Bermuda
|
13431
|
177
|
British Virgin Islands
|
13694
|
178
|
Maldives
|
13864
|
179
|
Palau
|
13864
|
180
|
St Lucia
|
13981
|
181
|
Tajikistan
|
14180
|
182
|
Djibouti
|
14186
|
183
|
Central African Republic
|
14433
|
184
|
Northern Marianas
|
14444
|
185
|
Marshall Islands
|
15827
|
186
|
Gabon
|
16002
|
187
|
Aruba
|
16347
|
188
|
Solomon Islands
|
17867
|
189
|
Montserrat
|
18103
|
190
|
East Timor
|
18433
|
191
|
Guinea
|
18588
|
192
|
French Guiana
|
18703
|
193
|
Liberia
|
19463
|
194
|
Isle of Man
|
20029
|
195
|
Mali
|
20172
|
196
|
Mauretania
|
22144
|
197
|
Equatorial Guinea
|
23382
|
198
|
Niue
|
23892
|
199
|
Eritrea
|
24481
|
200
|
Turks & Caicos Islands
|
27918
|
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